Science Based Fitness

Body & Mind Balance

Healthy Daily Life

Meditation Practice

Monthly Yoga Challenges

What is Science Based Fitness?

Your free- source of information, news, and deep dive into the latest science in the world or fitness and health. We dive deep into the literature and debunk a lot of fake claims. Also, providing helpful tips and workouts to improve your health and quality of life. 

Fat loss

How to lose fat

Backed by science 

Burn Fat

The secret to weight loss backed by science

By now, you’ve probably heard of all the different weight loss diets. There is Keto, Atkins, carnivore, whole foods, vegan, vegetarian, plant based, animal based, and many more. What do these diets have in common? The elimination of processed or sugary foods. However, all diets have one thing in common, and that is the reduction of calories by eliminating more caloric dense foods. 

It seems every couple of years the health industry cycles on diets based on trending topics. It’s unfortunate in the realm of fitness and health, the industry tries to sell so many products and plans. The truth behind weight loss is far more boring, and due to its boring and consistent nature, the industry works to start controversy.  The good news for you is Science Based Fitness provides you with all the information, so you don’t have to buy anything! This is a complete guide to help you lose weight and keep it off without the promotion of fad diets that don’t work long term. 

There’s a lot of “social media influencers” whose job is to sell products, so they make money. Now profit isn’t a bad thing if you’re truly helping people, but most people just want to help people buy a product or plan. At Science Based Fitness, we believe information should be FREE. We don’t want to profit from you. Instead, we want you to live your best life. We may recommend products, but our business model is to keep the mission running. 

The Science behind weight loss

Are carbohydrates bad and make you fat?

Does fat make you fat?

Is red meat bad?

Is high LDL good or bad?

Is insulin spikes bad?

Should you reduce the time you eat meals? 

Chances are you’ve heard these claims time and time again, and you might even listen to a medical professional make these exact claims. However, in the world of science, nothing it true until it can be proven. 

The truth is any diet can work if you stick to it and it puts you in a caloric deficit. A lot of people will debate the calories in vs. calories out logic based on the thermodynamics of foods and energy balance. However, the truth is based on all scientific studies, Weight loss occurs regardless of what calories are reduced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. 

torso_bn.jpg

The science Is clear

A caloric deficit is the most important factor for weight loss

Breaking Myths

The secret to weight loss backed by science

Science is clear…. The available evidence shows that weight loss occurs following a reduction in daily caloric intake, regardless of the macronutrient origin of those calories, although the magnitude of weight loss varies according to the type of macronutrient, and the effects on diet-induced thermogenesis.

This is a more simple and logical approach to weight loss. Enjoy the foods you like while focusing more on lean meats, fruits, vegetables, nuts and seeds. However, it’s good to be aware of calories. For example, fat contains 9 calories per-gram, so foods with a lot of fat tend to be more calorically dense. This is where foods with fiber come into play because it helps keep you full and may prevent overeating. Foods that contain higher amounts of fiber will help reduce hunger, and therefore people tend to eat less. We’ll explain more about the importance of fiber and its relation to the gut microbiome in another article. 

Diet and Trends

A lot of diets can be trendy and popular because they’re new and different. Ask anybody builder what they think of chicken, broccoli, and rice. It’s very bland and boring, but it works because you have lean protein, healthy vegetables with fiber, and a healthy carbohydrate source. The structure of that meal has proper proportion macronutrients. (Macronutrients are proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.) Many diets try to adjust caloric intake by reducing macronutrients. For example, keto, Atkins, Carnivore are all low-carbohydrate diets. In nearly all randomized control trials, there’s almost zero difference in weight loss when comparing low carbohydrate to low fat, so this raises the question, how do we lose weight? It’s truly simple when you focus on caloric restriction, then you can enjoy the foods you like while being at a healthy weight. 

If it’s all about calories, then why eat healthy?

Heathy foods, meaning, whole foods are simply better by nature. Most whole foods are less processed, so they have more fiber and less refined sugar added. Let’s look at an apple, for example. An apple contains 95 calories, 3 grams of fiber, and is packed with phytonutrients like antioxidants, vitamins and minerals. Compare an apple to Coke that contains 150 calories with zero fiber, no vitamins and minerals, and you’ll notice the Coke product didn’t leave you feeling full. Some data suggest the Coke beverage may lead you to eating a surplus of calories due to the higher sugar content with zero fiber. A whole apple compared to apple juice is also different. Apple juice goes through a filter and pasteurization process that removes fiber and some vitamins and minerals. Also, sugar is added to sweeten the beverage, so apple juice contains more calories than an apple. This is how people get into a caloric surplus because it’s very simple to over consume calories. 

 

Optimal Nutrition

So, now we understand the logic behind weight loss. However, what’s an optimal diet? Optimal nutrition is defined by the best foods to maximize healthy outcomes. In other words, optimal nutrition means to provide the body with the most nutrient dense foods to increase lifespan and performance. Metabolically, this means choosing foods with the most beneficial components will keep your body at optimal health to prevent disease. Regardless of some influencers claim, the data is clear. 

Focus on lean meats, fish, healthy carbohydrates like rice, oatmeal, legumes, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds. As we continue to learn about the gut microbiome and its complexity, it’s important to consume foods high in fiber as fiber helps feed good bacteria while eliminating bad. A lot of data concludes a Mediterranean diet would be the most beneficial diet for health and longevity. The Mediterranean Diet focuses on mostly lean meats, fish, grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts and seeds while limiting red meats. The Mediterranean diet is one of the most studied and well-known dietary patterns. 

Regarding optimal nutrition, it’s important to know that all foods have value. Wait, even Coke products have value? Regarding living, yes, any source of calories has value to sustain life. Humans didn’t always have an abundance of food available. So whatever foods were available was valuable. For example, red meat has value. Red meat contains proteins, vitamins, minerals, creatine, essential amino acids, and healthy fats. However, red meat also contains a lot of saturated fat, cholesterol, and no fiber. It would be wise to pair red meat with foods with fiber, low in fat and cholesterol, and other vitamins and minerals red meat doesn’t contain. This is the notion behind optimal nutrition. Optimally selecting foods to complement each other and what they’re lacking to promote better health. 

It's still possible to enjoy the foods you like while being in a deficit. Energy balance is the key to weight loss.

Sports Nutrition

For athletes or even average gym participants, it’s important to balance protein, carbohydrates, and fats. Eliminating a macronutrient will put you at a disadvantage. The scientific literature is sound on this notion. Eliminating carbohydrates may result in muscle loss due to the depletion of muscle glycogen. As a result, the muscle will look flat. Also, muscle growth will be limited. The style of training will account for overall caloric intake, protein and carbohydrate requirements. For example, an endurance runner will require more carbohydrates due to the consistent running. 

References

1. Ludwig DS, Willett WC, Volek JS, Neuhouser ML. Dietary fat: from foe to friend? Science. (2018) 362:764–70. doi: 10.1126/science.aau2096

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

2. Foster GD, Wyatt HR, Hill JO, Makris AP, Rosenbaum DL, Brill C, et al. Weight and metabolic outcomes after 2 years on a low-carbohydrate versus low-fat diet: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. (2010) 153:147–57. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-153-3-201008030-00005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

3. Ebbeling CB, Feldman HA, Klein GL, Wong JMW, Bielak L, Steltz SK, et al. Effects of a low carbohydrate diet on energy expenditure during weight loss maintenance: randomized trial. BMJ. (2018) 363:k4583. doi: 10.1136/bmj.k4583

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

4. Hall KD, Bemis T, Brychta R, Chen KY, Courville A, CRayner EJ, et al. Calorie for calorie, dietary fat restriction results in more body fat loss than carbohydrate restriction in people with obesity. Cell Metab. (2015) 22:427–36. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2015.07.021

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

5. Hall KD, Guo J. Obesity energetics: body weight regulation and the effects of diet composition. Gastroenterology. (2017) 152:1718–27.e1713. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.052

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

6. Swiglo BA, Murad MH, Schünemann HJ, Kunz R, Vigersky RA, Guyatt GH, et al. A case for clarity, consistency, and helpfulness: state-of-the-art clinical practice guidelines in endocrinology using the grading of recommendations, assessment, development, and evaluation system. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. (2008) 93:666–73. doi: 10.1210/jc.2007-1907

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

7. Freire R. Scientific evidence of diets for weight loss: different macronutrient composition, intermittent fasting, and popular diets. Nutrition. (2020) 69:110549. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2019.07.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

8. Muscogiuri G, Barrea L, Laudisio D, Pugliese G, Salzano C, Savastano S, et al. The management of very low-calorie ketogenic diet in obesity outpatient clinic: a practical guide. J Trans Med. (2019) 17:356. doi: 10.1186/s12967-019-2104-z

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

9. Caprio M, Infante M, Moriconi E, Armani A, Fabbri A, Mantovani G, et al. Very-low-calorie ketogenic diet [VLCKD] in the management of metabolic diseases: systematic review and consensus statement from the Italian Society of Endocrinology [SIE]. J Endocrinol Invest. (2019) 42:1365–86. doi: 10.1007/s40618-019-01061-2

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

10. Bueno NB, de Melo IS, de Oliveira SL, da Rocha Ataide T. Very-low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet v. low-fat diet for long-term weight loss: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Br J Nutr. (2013) 110:1178–87.21. doi: 10.1017/S0007114513000548

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

11. Paoli A, Rubini A, Volek JS, Grimaldi KA. Beyond weight loss: a review of the therapeutic uses of very-low-carbohydrate [ketogenic] diets. Eur J Clin Nutr. (2013) 67:789–96. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2013.116

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

12. Cicero AF, Benelli M, Brancaleoni M, Dainelli G, Merlini D, Negri R. Middle and long-term impact of a very low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet on cardiometabolic factors: a multi-center, cross-sectional, clinical study. High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev. (2015) 22:389–94. doi: 10.1007/s40292-015-0096-1

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

13. Moreno B, Bellido D, Sajoux I, Goday A, Saavedra D, Crujeiras AB, et al. Comparison of a very low-calorie-ketogenic diet with a standard low-calorie diet in the treatment of obesity. Endocrine. (2014) 47:793–805. doi: 10.1007/s12020-014-0192-3

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

14. Merra G, Miranda R, Barrucco S, Gualtieri P, Mazza M, Moriconi E, et al. Very-low-calorie ketogenic diet with aminoacid supplement versus very low restricted-calorie diet for preserving muscle mass during weight loss: a pilot double-blind study. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. (2016) 20:2613–21.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

15. Bistrian DR, Winterer J, Blackburn GL, Young V, Sherman M. Effect of a protein-sparing diet and brief fast on nitrogen metabolism in mildly obese subjects. J Lab Clin Med. (1977) 89:1030–5.

PubMed Abstract

16. Blackburn GL, Bray GA. Management of Obesity by Severe Caloric Restriction. Littleton: PSG Publishing Company, Inc. (1985).

Google Scholar

17. Avenell A, Brown TJ, McGee MA, Campbell MK, Grant AM, Broom J, et al. What are the long term benefits of weight reducing diets in adults? A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Hum Nutr Diet. (2004) 17:317–35. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-277X.2004.00531.x

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

18. Walters JK, Hoogwerf BJ, Reddy SS. The protein sparing modified fast for obesity-related medical problems. Cleve Clin J Med. (1997) 64:242–4 doi: 10.3949/ccjm.64.5.242

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

19. Bakhach M, Shah V, Harwood T, Lappe S, Bhesania N, Mansoor S, et al. The protein-sparing modified fast diet: an effective and safe approach to induce rapid weight loss in severely obese adolescents. Glob Pediatr Health. (2016) 3:2333794X15623245. doi: 10.1177/2333794X15623245

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

20. Styne DM, Arslanian SA, Connor EL, Farooqi IS, Murad MH, Silverstein JH. Pediatric obesity-assessment, treatment, and prevention: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. (2017) 102:709–57. doi: 10.1210/jc.2016-2573

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

21. Van Gaal LF, Snyders D, De Leeuw IH, Bekaert JL. Anthropometric and calorimetric evidence for the protein sparing effects of a new protein supplemented low calorie preparation. Am J Clin Nutr. (1985) 41:540–4. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/41.3.540

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

22. Martin WF, Cerundolo LH, Pikosky MA, Gaine PC, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, et al. Effects of dietary protein intake on indexes of hydration. J Am Dietetic Assoc. (2006) 106:587–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2006.01.011

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

23. Walrand S, Short KR, Bigelow ML, Sweatt AJ, Hutson SM, Nair KS. Functional impact of high protein intake on healthy elderly people. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. (2008) 295:E921–8. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.90536.2008

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

24. Reddy ST, Wang CY, Sakhaee K, Brinkley L, Pak CY. Effect of low-carbohydrate high-protein diets on acid-base balance, stone-forming propensity, and calcium metabolism. Am J Kidney Dis. (2002) 40:265–74. doi: 10.1053/ajkd.2002.34504

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

25. Poplawski MM, Mastaitis JW, Isoda F, Grosjean F, Zheng F, Mobbs CV. Reversal of diabetic nephropathy by a ketogenic diet. PLoS ONE. (2011) 6:e18604. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018604

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

26. Festi D, Colecchia A, Larocca A, Villanova N, Mazzella G, Petroni ML, et al. Review: low caloric intake and gall-bladder motor function. Alimentary Pharmacol Ther. (2000) 14 (Suppl. 2):51–3. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2036.2000.014s2051.x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

27. Bonjour JP. Dietary protein: an essential nutrient for bone health. J Am Coll Nutr. (2005) 24:526S−36S. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2005.10719501

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

28. Darling AL, Millward DJ, Torgerson DJ, Hewitt CE, Lanham-New SA. Dietary protein and bone health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. (2009) 90:1674–92. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27799

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

29. Weber DD, Aminazdeh-Gohari S, Kofler B. Ketogenic diet in cancer therapy. Aging. (2018) 10:164–5. doi: 10.18632/aging.101382

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

30. Weber DD, Aminzadeh-Gohari S, Tulipan J, Catalano L, Feichtinger RG, Kofler B. Ketogenic diet in the treatment of cancer – Where do we stand? Mol Metab. (2019) 33:102–21. doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2019.06.026

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

31. Woolf EC, Scheck AC. The ketogenic diet for the treatment of malignant glioma. J Lipid Res. (2015) 56:5–10. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R046797

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

32. Bartmann C, Janaki Raman SR, Flöter J, Schulze A, Bahlke K, Willingstorfer J, et al. Beta-hydroxybutyrate [3-OHB] can influence the energetic phenotype of breast cancer cells, but does not impact their proliferation and the response to chemotherapy or radiation. Cancer Metab. (2018) 6:8. doi: 10.1186/s40170-018-0180-9

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

33. Abdelwahab MG, Fenton KE, Preul MC, Rho JM, Lynch A, Stafford P, et al. The ketogenic diet is an effective adjuvant to radiation therapy for the treatment of malignant glioma. PLoS ONE. (2012) 7:e36197. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036197

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

34. Winter SF, Loebel F, Dietrich J. Role of ketogenic metabolic therapy in malignant glioma: a systematic review. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. (2017) 112:41–58. doi: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2017.02.016

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

35. van der Louw EJTM, Olieman JF, van den Bemt PMLA, Bromberg JEC, Oomen-de Hoop E, Neuteboom RF, et al. Ketogenic diet treatment as adjuvant to standard treatment of glioblastoma multiforme: a feasibility and safety study. Ther Adv Med Oncol. (2019) 11:1758835919853958. doi: 10.1177/1758835919882584

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

36. Schwartz KA, Noel M, Nikolai M, Chang HT. Investigating the ketogenic diet as treatment for primary aggressive brain cancer: challenges and lessons learned. Front Nutr. (2018) 5:11. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2018.00011

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

37. Rieger J, Bähr O, Maurer GD, Hattingen E, Franz K, Brucker D, et al. ERGO: a pilot study of ketogenic diet in recurrent glioblastoma. Int J Oncol. (2014) 44:1843–52. doi: 10.3892/ijo.2014.2382

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

38. Kossoff EH, Dorward JL. The modified Atkins diet. Epilepsia. (2008) 49:37–41. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01831.x

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

39. Gardner CD, Kiazand A, Alhassan S, Kim S, Stafford RS, Balise RR, et al. Comparison of the Atkins, Zone, Ornish, and LEARN diets for change in weight and related risk factors among overweight premenopausal women: the A TO Z Weight Loss Study: a randomized trial. JAMA. (2007) 297:969–77. doi: 10.1001/jama.297.9.969

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

40. Shai I, Schwarzfuchs D, Henkin Y, Shahar DR, Witkow S, Greenberg I, et al. Weight loss with a low-carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or low-fat diet. N Engl J Med. (2008) 359:229–41. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0708681

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

41. Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Lemmens SG, Westerterp KR. Dietary protein—its role in satiety, energetics, weight loss and health. Br J Nutr. (2012) 108:S105–12. doi: 10.1017/S0007114512002589

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

42. Gardner CD, Trepanowski JF, Del Gobbo LC, Hauser ME, Rigdon J, Ioannidis JPA, et al. Effect of low-fat vs low-carbohydrate diet on 12-month weight loss in overweight adults and the association with genotype pattern or insulin secretion: the DIETFITS randomized clinical trial. JAMA. (2018) 319:667–79. doi: 10.1001/jama.2018.0245

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

43. Truby H, Baic S, deLooy A, Fox KR, Livingstone MBE, Logan CM, et al. Randomised controlled trial of four commercial weight loss programmes in the UK: initial findings from the BBC “diet trials.” BMJ. (2006) 332:1309–14. doi: 10.1136/bmj.38833.411204.80

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

44. Dalle Grave R, Calugi S, Gavasso I, El Ghoch M, Marchesini G. A randomized trial of energy-restricted high-protein versus high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet in morbid obesity. Obesity. (2013) 21:1774–81. doi: 10.1002/oby.20320

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

45. Mansoor N, Vinknes KJ, Veierød MB, Retterstøl K. Effects of low-carbohydrate diets v. low-fat diets on body weight and cardiovascular risk factors: a metaanalysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. (2016) 115:466–79. doi: 10.1017/S0007114515004699

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

46. Retterstøl K, Svendsen M, Narverud I, Holven KB. Effect of low carbohydrate high fat diet on LDL cholesterol and gene expression in normal-weight, young adults: a randomized controlled study. Atherosclerosis. (2018) 279:52–61. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.10.013

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

47. Sacks FM, Bray GA, Carey VJ, Smith SR, Ryan DH, Anton SD, et al. Comparison of weight-loss diets with different compositions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. N Engl J Med. (2009) 360:859–73. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0804748

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

48. Eaton SB, Konner M. Paleolithic nutrition. A consideration of its nature and current implications. N Engl J Med. (1985) 312:283–9. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198501313120505

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

49. Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, Mann N, Lindeberg S, Watkins BA, et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am J Clin Nutr. (2005) 81:341–54. doi: 10.1093/ajcn.81.2.341

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

50. Cordain L, Miller JB, Eaton SB, Mann N, Holt SH, Speth JD. Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hunter gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr. (2000) 71:682–92. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/71.3.682

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

51. Pastore RL, Brooks JT, Carbone JW. Paleolithic nutrition improves plasma lipid concentrations of hypercholesterolemic adults to a greater extent than traditional heart-healthy dietary recommendations. Nutr Res. (2015) 35:474–9. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2015.05.002

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

52. Manheimer EW, van Zuuren EJ, Fedorowicz Z, Pijl H. Paleolithic nutrition for metabolic syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. (2015) 102:922–32. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.115.113613

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

53. Jonsson T, Ahr_en B, Pacini G, Sundler F, Wierup N, Steen S, et al. A Paleolithic diet confers higher insulin sensitivity, lower C-reactive protein and lower blood pressure than a cereal-based diet in domestic pigs. Nutr Metab. (2006) 3:39. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-3-39

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

54. Jonsson T, Granfeldt Y, Ahr_en B, Branell US, Palsson G, Hansson A, et al. Beneficial effects of a Paleolithic diet on cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes: a randomized cross-over pilot study. Cardiovasc Diabetol. (2009) 8:35. doi: 10.1186/1475-2840-8-35

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

55. Ghaedi E, Mohammadi M, Mohammadi H, Ramezani-Jolfaie N, Malekzadeh J, Hosseinzadeh M, et al. Effects of a Paleolithic diet on cardiovascular disease risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Adv Nutr. (2019) 10:634–46. doi: 10.1093/advances/nmz007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

56. Jonsson T, Granfeldt Y, Erlanson-Albertsson C, Ahrén B, Lindeberg S. A Paleolithic diet is more satiating per calorie than a mediterranean-like diet in individuals with ischemic heart disease. Nutr Metab. (2010) 7:85. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-7-85

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

57. Bligh HF, Godsland IF, Frost G, Hunter KJ, Murray P, MacAulay K, et al. Plantrich mixed meals based on Palaeolithic diet principles have a dramatic impact on incretin, peptide YY and satiety response, but show little effect on glucose and insulin homeostasis: an acute-effects randomised study. Br J Nutr. (2015) 113:574–84. doi: 10.1017/S0007114514004012

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

58. Spreadbury I. Comparison with ancestral diets suggests dense acellular carbohydrates promote an inflammatory microbiota, and may be the primary dietary cause of leptin resistance and obesity. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. (2012) 5:175–89. doi: 10.2147/DMSO.S33473

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

59. Jonsson T, Granfeldt Y, Lindeberg S, Hallberg AC. Subjective satiety and other experiences of a Paleolithic diet compared to a diabetes diet in patients with type 2 diabetes. Nutr J. (2013) 12:105. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-12-105

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

60. Osterdahl M, Kocturk T, Koochek A, W€andell PE. Effects of a short-term intervention with a paleolithic diet in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Nutr. (2008) 62:682–5. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602790

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

61. Otten J, Stomby A, Waling M, Isaksson A, Tellstrom A, Lundlin-Olsson L, et al. Benefits of a Paleolithic diet with and without supervised exercise on fat mass, insulin sensitivity, and glycemic control: a randomized controlled trial in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. (2017) 33:e2828. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.2828

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

62. Mellberg C, Sandberg S, Ryberg M, Eriksson M, Brage S, Larsson C, et al. Long term effects of a Palaeolithic-type diet in obese postmenopausal women: a 2-year randomized trial. Eur J Clin Nutr. (2014) 68:350–7. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2013.290

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

63. Otten J, Mellberg C, Ryberg M, Sandberg S, Kullberg J, Lindahl B, et al. Strong and persistent effect on liver fat with a Paleolithic diet during a two-year intervention. Int J Obes. (2016) 40:747–53. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2016.4

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

64. Manousou S, Sta_ l M, Larsson C, Mellberg C, Lindahl B, Eggersten R, et al. A Paleolithic-type diet results in iodine deficiency: a 2-year randomized trial in postmenopausal obese women. Eur J Clin Nutr. (2018) 72:124–9. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2017.134

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

65. Pitt CE. Cutting through the Paleo hype: the evidence for the Palaeolithic diet. Aust Fam Physician. (2016) 45:35–8.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

66. Mattson MP, Moehl K, Ghena N, Schmaedick M, Cheng A. Intermittent metabolic switching, neuroplasticity and brain health. Nat Rev Neurosci. (2018) 19:63–80. doi: 10.1038/nrn.2017.156

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

67. Halberg N, Henriksen M, S€oderhamn N, Stallknecht B, Ploug T, Schjerling P, et al. Effect of intermittent fasting and refeeding on insulin action in healthy men. J Appl Physiol. (2005) 99:2128–36. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00683.2005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

68. Varady KA, Bhutani S, Church EC, Klempel MC. Short-term modified alternate- day fasting: a novel dietary strategy for weight loss and cardioprotection in obese adults. Am J Clin Nutr. (2009) 90:1138–43. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28380

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

69. Eshghinia S, Mohammadzadeh F. The effects of modified alternate-day fasting diet on weight loss and CAD risk factors in overweight and obese women. J Diabetes Metab Disord. (2013) 12:4. doi: 10.1186/2251-6581-12-4

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

70. Anson RM, Guo Z, de Cabo R, Iyun T, Rios M, Hagepanos A, et al. Intermittent fasting dissociates beneficial effects of dietary restriction on glucose metabolism and neuronal resistance to injury from calorie intake. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. (2003) 100:6216–20. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1035720100

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

71. Varady KA. Intermittent versus daily calorie restriction: which diet regimen is more effective for weight loss? Obes Rev. (2011) 12:e593–601. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00873.x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

72. Johnson JB, Summer W, Cutler RG, Martin B, Hyun DH, Dixit VD, et al. Alternate day calorie restriction improves clinical findings and reduces markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight adults with moderate asthma. Free Radic Biol Med. (2007) 42:665–74. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2006.12.005

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

73. Cheng CW, Villani V, Buono R, Wei M, Kumar S, Yilmaz OH, et al. Fasting-mimicking diet promotes Ngn3-driven β-cell regeneration to reverse diabetes. Cell. (2017) 168:775–88.e12. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.01.040

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

74. Mager DE, Wan R, Brown M, Cheng A, Wareski P, Abernathy DR, et al. Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting alter spectral measures of heart rate and blood pressure variability in rats. FASEB J. (2006) 20:631–7. doi: 10.1096/fj.05-5263com

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

75. de Groot S, Vreeswijk MP, Welters MJ, Gravesteijn G, Boei JJ, Jochems A, et al. The effects of short-term fasting on tolerance to [neo] adjuvant chemotherapy in HER2-negative breast cancer patients: a randomised pilot study. BMC Cancer. (2015) 15:652. doi: 10.1186/s12885-015-1663-5

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

76. Dorff TB, Groshen S, Garcia A, Shah M, Tsao-Wei D, Pham H, et al. Safety and feasibility of fasting in combination with platinum-based chemotherapy. BMC Cancer. (2016) 16:360. doi: 10.1186/s12885-016-2370-6

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

77. Bauersfeld SP, Kessler CS, Wischnewsky M, Jaensch A, Steckhan N, Stange R, et al. The effects of short-term fasting on quality of life and tolerance to chemotherapy in patients with breast and ovarian cancer:a randomised cross-over pilot study. BMC Cancer. (2018) 18:476. doi: 10.1186/s12885-018-4353-2

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

78. Arends J, Bachmann P, Baracos V, Barthelemy N, Bertz H, Bozzetti F, et al. ESPEN guidelines on nutrition in cancer patients. Clin Nutr. (2017) 36:11–48. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2016.07.015

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

79. Fontana L, Patridge L. Promoting health and longevity through diet: from model organisms to humans, Cell. (2015) 161:106–18. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.020

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

80. Holloszy JO, Fontana L. Caloric restriction in humans. Exp Gerontol. (2007) 42:709–12. doi: 10.1016/j.exger.2007.03.009

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

81. Dirks AJ, Leeuwenburgh C. Caloric restriction in humans: potential pitfalls and health concerns. Mech Ageig Dev. (2006) 127:1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.mad.2005.09.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

82. Das SK, Roberts SB, Bhapkar MV, Villareal DT, Fontana L, Martin CK, et al. Body-composition changes in the comprehensive assessment of long-term effects of reducing intake of energy [CALERIE]-2 study: a 2-y randomised controlled trial of calorie restriction in non obese humans. Am J Clin Nutr. (2017) 105:913–27. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.116.137232

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

83. Jospe MR, Roy M, Brown RC, Haszard JJ, Meredith-Jones K, Fangupo LJ, et al. Intermittent fasting, Paleolithic, or Mediterranean diets in the real world: exploratory secondary analyses of a weight-loss trial that included choice of diet and exercise. Am J Clin Nutr. 111:503–14. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqz330

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

84. Headland M, Clifton P, Carter S, Keogh J. Weight-loss outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of intermittent energy restriction trials lasting a minimum of 6 months. Nutrients. (2016) 8:354. doi: 10.3390/nu8060354

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

85. Antoni R, Johnston KL, Collins AL, Robertson MD. Effects of intermittent fasting on glucose and lipid metabolism. Proc Nutr Soc. (2017) 76:361–8. doi: 10.1017/S0029665116002986

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

86. Goodrick CL, Ingram DK, Reynolds MA, Freeman JR, Cider N. Effects of intermittent feeding upon body weight and lifespan in inbred mice: interaction of genotype and age. Mech Ageing Dev. (1990) 55:69–87. doi: 10.1016/0047-6374(90)90107-Q

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

87. Catenacci VA, Pan Z, Ostendorf D, Brannon S, Gozansky WS, Mattson MP, et al. A randomized pilot study comparing zero-calorie alternate-day fasting to daily caloric restriction in adults with obesity. Obesity. (2016) 24:1874–83. doi: 10.1002/oby.21581

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

88. Harvie MN, Pegington M, Mattson MP, Frystyk J, Dillon B, Evans G, et al. The effects of intermittent or continuous energy restriction on weight loss and metabolic disease risk markers: a randomized trial in young overweight women. Int J Obes. (2011) 35:714–27. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010.171

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

89. Higashida K, Fujimoto E, Higuchi M, Terada S. Effects of alternate-day fasting on high-fat diet-induced insulin resistance in rat skeletal muscle. Life Sci. (2013) 93:208–13. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2013.06.007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

90. McNeil J, Mamlouk MM, Duval K, Schwartz A, Nardo Junior N, Doucet E. Alterations in metabolic profile occur in normal-weight and obese men during the Ramadan fast despite no changes in anthropometry. J Obes. (2014) 2014:482547. doi: 10.1155/2014/482547

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

91. Sadeghirad B, Motaghipisheh S, Kolahdooz F, Zahedi MJ, Haghdoost AA. Islamic fasting and weight loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Public Health Nutr. (2014) 17:396–406. doi: 10.1017/S1368980012005046

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

92. Baumeier C, Kaiser D, Heeren J, Scheja L, John C, Weise C, et al. Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting alter hepatic lipid droplet proteome and diacylglycerol species and prevent diabetes in NZO mice. Biochim Biophys Acta. (2015) 1851:566–76. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2015.01.013

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

93. Soeters MR, Lammers NM, Dubbelhuis PF, Ackermans M, Jonkers-Schuitema CF, Fliers E, et al. Intermittent fasting does not affect whole-body glucose, lipid, or protein metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr. (2009) 90:1244–51. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.27327

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

94. Hatori M, Vollmers C, Zarrinpar A, DiTacchio L, Bushong EA, Gill S, et al. Timerestricted feeding without reducing caloric intake prevents metabolic diseases in mice fed a high-fat diet. Cell Metab. (2012) 15:848–60. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2012.04.019

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

95. Chaix A, Zarrinpar A, Miu P, Panda S. Time-restricted feeding is a preventative and therapeutic intervention against diverse nutritional challenges. Cell Metab. (2014) 20:991–1005. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2014.11.001

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

96. Chowdhury EA, Richardson JD, Tsintzas K, Thompson D, Betts JA. Effect of extended morning fasting upon ad libitum lunch intake and associated metabolic and hormonal responses in obese adults. Int J Obes. (2016) 40:305–11. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2015.154

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

97. Moro T, Tinsley G, Bianco A, Marcolin G, Pacelli QF, Battaglia G, et al. Effects of eight weeks of time-restricted feeding [16/8] on basal metabolism, maximal strength, body composition, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk factors in resistance-trained males. J Transl Med. (2016) 14:290. doi: 10.1186/s12967-016-1044-0

CrossRef Full Text

98. Sutton EF, Beyl R, Early KS, Cefalu WT, Ravussin E, Peterson CM. Early timerestricted feeding improves insulin sensitivity, blood pressure, and oxidative stress even without weight loss in men with prediabetes. Cell Metab. (2018) 27:1212–21.e1213. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.04.010

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

99. Kul S, Savas E, €Ozt€urk ZA, Karada_g G. Does Ramadan fasting alter body weight and blood lipids and fasting blood glucose in a healthy population? A metaanalysis. J Relig Health. (2014) 53:929–42. doi: 10.1007/s10943-013-9687-0

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

100. Liu H, Javaheri A, Godar RJ, Murphy J, Ma X, Rohatgi N, et al. Intermittent fasting preserves beta-cell mass in obesity-induced diabetes via the autophagylysosome pathway. Autophagy. (2017) 13:1952–68. doi: 10.1080/15548627.2017.1368596

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

101. Bhutani S, Klempel MC, Kroeger CM, Trepanowski JF, Varady KA. Alternate day fasting and endurance exercise combine to reduce body weight and favorably alter plasma lipids in obese humans. Obesity. (2013) 21:1370–9. doi: 10.1002/oby.20353

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

102. Greenway FL. Physiological adaptations to weight loss and factors favouring weight regain. Int J Obes. (2015) 39:1188e96. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2015.59

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

103. Varady KA, Hellerstein MK. Alternate-day fasting and chronic disease prevention: a review of human and animal trials. Am J Clin Nutr. (2007) 86:7e13. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/86.1.7

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

104. Klempel MC, Kroeger CM, Varady KA. Alternate day fasting [ADF] with a high-fat diet produces similar weight loss and cardioprotection as ADF with a low-fat diet. Metabolism. (2013) 62:137e43. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2012.07.002

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

105. Harris L, McGarty A, Hutchison L, Ells L, Hankey C. Short-term intermittent energy restriction interventions for weight management: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev. (2017) 19:1–13. doi: 10.1111/obr.12593

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

106. Al-Hourani HM, Atoum MF. Body composition, nutrient intake and physical activity patterns in young women during Ramadan. Singapore Med J. (2007) 48:906–10.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

107. Hajek P, Myers K, Dhanji AR, West O, McRobbie H. Weight change during and after Ramadan fasting. J Public Health. (2012) 34:377–81. doi: 10.1093/pubmed/fdr087

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

108. Yucel A, Degirmenci B, Acar M, Albayrak R, Haktanir A. The effect of fasting month of Ramadan on the abdominal fat distribution: assessment by computed tomography. Tohoku J Exp Med. (2004) 204:179–87. doi: 10.1620/tjem.204.179

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

109. Lamri-Senhadji MY, El Kebir B, Belleville J, Bouchenak M. Assessment of dietary consumption and time-course of changes in serum lipids and lipoproteins before, during and after Ramadan in young Algerian adults. Singapore Med J. (2009) 50:288–94.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

110. Fahrial Syam A, Suryani Sobur C, Abdullah M, Makmun D. Ramadan fasting decreases body fat but not protein mass. Int J Endocrinol Metab. (2016) 14:e29687. doi: 10.5812/ijem.29687

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

111. Wei M, Brandhorst S, Shelehchi M, Mirzaei H, Cheng CW, Budniak J, et al. Fasting-mimicking diet and markers/risk factors for aging, diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Sci Transl Med. (2017) 9:eaai8700. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aai8700

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

112. Newman JC, Verdin E. Ketone bodies as signaling metabolites. Trends Endocrinol Metab. (2014) 25:42–52. doi: 10.1016/j.tem.2013.09.002

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

113. Lu Z, Die J, Wu G, Shen J, Collins R, Chen W, et al. Fasting selectively blocks development of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia via leptin-receptor upregulation. Nat Med. (2017) 23:79–90. doi: 10.1038/nm.4252

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

114. Raffaghello L, Lee C, Safdie FM, Wei M, Madia F, Bianchi G, et al. Starvation-dependent differential stress resistance protects normal but not cancer cells against high-dose chemotherapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. (2008) 105:8215–20. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0708100105

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

115. Nencioni A, Caffa I, Cortellino S, Longo VD. Fasting and cancer: molecular mechanisms and clinical application. Nat Rev Cancer. (2018) 18:707–19. doi: 10.1038/s41568-018-0061-0

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

116. Wilde L, Roche M, Domingo-Vidal M, Tanson K, Philp N, Curry J, et al. Metabolic coupling and the Reverse Warburg Effect in cancer: implications for novel biomarker and anticancer agent development. Semin Oncol. (2017) 44:198–203. doi: 10.1053/j.seminoncol.2017.10.004

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

117. Nwosu ZC, Ebert MP, Dooley S, Meyer C. Caveolin-1 in the regulation of cell metabolism: a cancer perspective. Mol Cancer. (2016) 15:71. doi: 10.1186/s12943-016-0558-7

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

118. Vander Heiden MG, Cantley LC, Thompson CB. Understanding the Warburg effect: the metabolic requirements of cell proliferation. Science. (2009) 324:1029–33. doi: 10.1126/science.1160809

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

119. Bovenzi CD, Hamilton J, Tassone P, Johnson J, Cognetti DM, Luginbuhl A, et al. Prognostic indications of elevated MCT4 and CD147 across cancer types: a meta-analysis. BioMed Res Int. (2015) 2015:242437. doi: 10.1155/2015/242437

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

120. Kalaany NY, Sabatini DM. Prognostic indications of elevated MCT4 and CD147 across cancer types: tumours with PI3K activation are resistant to dietary restriction. Nature. (2009) 458:725–31. doi: 10.1038/nature07782

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

121. Caffa I, Spagnolo V, Vernieri C, Valdemarin F, Becherini P, Wei M, et al. Fasting-mimicking diet and hormone therapy induce breast cancer regression. Nature. (2020) 583:620–4. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2502-7

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

122. Lis CG, Gupta D, Lammersfeld CA, Markman M, Vashi PG. Role of nutritional status in predicting quality of life outcomes in cancer—A systematic review of the epidemiological literature. Nutr J. (2012) 11:27. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-11-27

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

123. Sukkar SG, Giacosa A, Frascio F. Clinical validation of bioelectrical impedance [BIA] in malnourished cancer patients. RINPE. (1993) 11:78–88.

124. Grundmann O, Yoon S, Williams J. The value of bioelectrical impedance analysis and phase angle in the evaluation of malnutrition and quality of life in cancer patients—a comprehensive review. Eur J Clin Nutr. (2015) 69:1290–7. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2015.126

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar